# Stingray — Facts, Threats & Conservation

*Order Myliobatiformes*

> A stingray is a flat-bodied cartilaginous fish in the order Myliobatiformes, related to sharks. Its broad pectoral fins form a disc that flaps for swimming, and most species carry a venomous, barbed tail spine used only for defence. Most are bottom-dwelling ambush predators of shellfish.

**IUCN status:** Varies by species; many threatened by overfishing  ·  **WARN range:** Tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide, Temperate coastal seas, South American rivers (freshwater species), Indo-Pacific, Atlantic and Mediterranean

## Quick facts
| Fact | Value |
| --- | --- |
| Common name | Stingray |
| Group | Rays (cartilaginous fish, relatives of sharks) |
| Order | Myliobatiformes |
| Number of species | ~220 |
| Skeleton | Cartilage, not bone |
| Body shape | Flattened disc formed by pectoral fins |
| Defence | Venomous, barbed tail spine |
| Diet | Shellfish, crustaceans and worms; mantas filter plankton |
| Habitat | Coastal and open seas worldwide; some in fresh water |
| Reproduction | Live-bearing (ovoviviparous) |

## Scientific classification
- **Kingdom:** Animalia
- **Phylum:** Chordata
- **Class:** Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
- **Subclass:** Elasmobranchii
- **Order:** Myliobatiformes
- **Families:** Around a dozen, e.g. Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae, Mobulidae
- **Species:** Approximately 220

## Conservation status
- **Status:** Varies by species. Many stingrays remain relatively common, but a large number are threatened: dozens are listed as Vulnerable or Endangered on the IUCN Red List, with some coastal and freshwater species Critically Endangered. There is no single status for the whole order.
- **Population:** No overall population estimate exists; stingrays comprise around 220 species with widely differing abundance and trends.
- **Trend:** Decreasing for many species, driven by fishing pressure
- **Assessed:** Ongoing (various IUCN assessments)
- **CITES:** Manta and devil rays (family Mobulidae) are listed under CITES; many other stingrays are not
- Slow growth, late maturity and small litters make stingrays especially vulnerable to overfishing and slow to recover, while habitat loss adds pressure on inshore and freshwater species.

## Key facts: Stingray
- Stingrays are cartilaginous fish in the order Myliobatiformes, making them close cousins of sharks rather than bony fish.
- Their flat, disc-shaped bodies are formed by enlarged pectoral fins that they flap or ripple to swim.
- The barbed tail spine delivers venom for defence only; stingrays are not aggressive and sting when stepped on or cornered.
- Most species are bottom-dwellers that crush shellfish with flattened teeth, though mantas and devil rays filter-feed on plankton in open water.
- Some stingrays live entirely in fresh water, notably the river rays of South America.
- Overfishing for meat, fins and gill plates has pushed dozens of stingray species toward the threatened categories of the IUCN Red List.

## What is a stingray and how is it related to sharks?
Stingrays belong to the order Myliobatiformes, part of the subclass Elasmobranchii — the same broad group that contains sharks, skates and other rays. Like sharks, they have no true bones; their skeleton is built from flexible cartilage, and their skin is covered in tiny tooth-like denticles rather than scales. What sets rays apart is their dramatically flattened shape. The pectoral fins are hugely enlarged and fused to the head and body, forming a broad disc that, in many species, looks almost circular or diamond-shaped. This pancake form is an adaptation for life on the seabed, where a low profile helps a ray rest, bury itself and surprise prey. The order is diverse, spanning around 220 species in roughly a dozen families, from palm-sized round stingrays to the enormous oceanic manta. Familiar groups include the whiptail stingrays (Dasyatidae), eagle rays, cownose rays, butterfly rays and the manta and devil rays (Mobulidae). Despite their fearsome reputation, stingrays are generally placid animals that would rather glide away than confront a swimmer.

## How does the stingray's venomous tail spine work?
The stingray's defining weapon is one or more barbed spines, or stingers, set partway along the whip-like tail. Each spine is a modified denticle made of a hard, tooth-like material called vasodentine, edged with backward-pointing serrations. Running along grooves in the spine is venom-producing tissue, and the whole spine is wrapped in a thin skin sheath that tears on contact to release the venom. Crucially, this is a purely defensive system. A stingray cannot 'shoot' its spine; instead, if it feels cornered or is trodden on, it whips the tail upward and drives the barb into the threat. The venom causes intense pain, swelling and, in serious cases, tissue damage, while the serrated barb can inflict a deep, ragged wound. Human stings are uncommon and almost always happen when someone accidentally steps on a buried ray in shallow water, which is why beach-goers are advised to do the 'stingray shuffle', sliding their feet to nudge rays away. Fatalities are extremely rare. The spine is shed and regrown periodically, so a ray is never disarmed for long.

## Where do stingrays live and what do they eat?
Stingrays are found in warm and temperate seas across the globe, mostly in shallow coastal waters where they rest on sandy or muddy bottoms. Some, such as the pelagic stingray and the manta and devil rays, live out in open water instead, swimming with graceful flaps of their wing-like fins. A distinctive group, the river rays of the family Potamotrygonidae, lives permanently in the fresh waters of South American rivers, including the Amazon. Most bottom-dwelling stingrays are ambush predators. They glide over the seabed or lie buried with only their eyes and breathing holes (spiracles) exposed, then use their flexible discs to trap prey and their flattened, pavement-like teeth to crush molluscs, crustaceans and worms. Their mouths sit on the underside of the body, so they sense food using electroreception and smell rather than sight. By contrast, mantas and devil rays are gentle giants that filter tiny plankton from the water through specialised gill plates. This range of feeding styles, from shell-crushing to filter-feeding, helps explain why rays occupy so many different marine habitats.

## Are stingrays endangered?
Conservation status varies enormously across the stingray family, which is why no single label fits the whole group. Many smaller, widespread species are still relatively common, but a large number are in trouble. As of recent IUCN assessments, dozens of stingray and related ray species are listed as Vulnerable or Endangered, and some river and coastal species are Critically Endangered. The main threat is fishing. Rays are caught both deliberately and as bycatch, and demand for their meat, and for the gill plates of manta and devil rays, has driven sharp declines. Because rays grow slowly, mature late and produce only small litters of live young, populations recover very slowly once depleted. Habitat loss, river pollution and the degradation of mangroves and seagrass beds add further pressure, especially for freshwater and inshore species. In response, manta and devil rays have been given protection under CITES, the international convention regulating trade in threatened wildlife, and several countries have introduced sanctuaries and fishing limits. For most stingray species, however, monitoring and protection still lag well behind the scale of the threat.

## Stingray vs manta ray
| Feature | Typical stingray | Manta ray |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Lifestyle | Bottom-dwelling, often buried in sand | Open-water, constantly swimming |
| Feeding | Crushes shellfish and crustaceans | Filters plankton from the water |
| Size | Often under 1 m disc width | Up to about 7 m fin-tip to fin-tip |
| Tail spine | Functional venomous barb for defence | Vestigial; cannot sting effectively |
| Behaviour toward humans | Stings only if stepped on or cornered | Harmless and often curious |

## What WARN does
WARN does not run field projects dedicated specifically to stingrays, which live mostly outside the five countries where our partners work — this guide is part of our free educational work to help people understand and value wildlife worldwide. The threats that endanger many rays, especially habitat loss, water pollution and overfishing, are the same pressures harming the coastal and freshwater animals WARN does help protect.

If learning about these gentle gliders sparked your curiosity, a small gift helps keep our wildlife guides free and supports the animals WARN protects on the ground.

## Frequently asked questions: Stingray
### Are stingrays dangerous to humans?
Stingrays are not aggressive and pose little danger if left alone. They sting only in self-defence, almost always when accidentally stepped on in shallow water. A sting is very painful and the barb can cause a deep wound, but fatalities are extremely rare. Wading with a shuffling 'stingray shuffle' nudges buried rays away and prevents most accidents.

### Is a stingray a fish?
Yes. Stingrays are fish, but cartilaginous fish rather than bony fish. They belong to the same group as sharks and skates, with a skeleton made of flexible cartilage instead of bone. Their flattened, disc-shaped bodies and wing-like pectoral fins make them look very different from a typical fish, but they breathe through gills and live entirely in water.

### What do stingrays eat?
Most stingrays are bottom-feeders that hunt molluscs, crustaceans, worms and small fish. They locate buried prey using electroreception and smell, then crush shells with flattened, plate-like teeth. Their mouths sit on the underside of the body. Manta and devil rays are exceptions: these large open-water rays filter tiny plankton from the sea through specialised structures on their gills.

### Do stingrays lay eggs?
No. Unlike their close relatives the skates, stingrays give birth to live young. They are ovoviviparous, meaning the eggs develop and hatch inside the mother's body. Embryos are nourished first by a yolk sac and then by nutrient-rich uterine secretions, and the young are born as small, fully formed rays. Litters are usually small, typically only a handful of pups.

### How big can stingrays get?
Size varies hugely across the roughly 220 species. Many coastal stingrays have discs less than a metre wide, while some giant freshwater and marine species grow much larger. The biggest of all are the oceanic manta rays, whose 'wingspan' can reach about 7 metres from fin tip to fin tip, making them among the largest fish in the sea after the great filter-feeding sharks.

### What is the difference between a stingray and a manta ray?
Manta rays are a type of ray within the same order as stingrays, but they live very differently. Mantas are huge, open-water filter-feeders that swim continuously and strain plankton from the sea, and they have only a vestigial tail spine, so they cannot sting. Typical stingrays are smaller bottom-dwellers that ambush shellfish and carry a working venomous tail barb for defence.

## Sources
- [Stingray — Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingray)
- [Myliobatiformes — Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myliobatiformes)
- [Stingray — Encyclopaedia Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/animal/stingray)
- [IUCN Red List](https://www.iucnredlist.org/)
- [CITES — sharks and rays](https://cites.org/eng/prog/shark)
- [Manta ray — Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manta_ray)

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Full guide: https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/stingray