World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/marlin): Marlin — wildlife guide.

## Are marlin endangered?
Blue marlin is Vulnerable (IUCN, 2019) with a decreasing trend. White marlin is Near Threatened. Striped and black marlin are Data Deficient.

## Why are marlin declining?
Incidental capture on tuna and swordfish longlines is the primary cause. Directed fisheries, sport fishing mortality and slow growth compound the decline.

## What is marlin bycatch?
Marlin caught unintentionally on longlines set for tuna and swordfish. Most die on the line. Atlantic blue marlin bycatch alone exceeds thousands of tonnes annually.

## Do sport fishermen kill marlin?
Modern tournaments increasingly use tag-and-release, but fight stress and hook injury kill 5–30% of released fish. Trophy fishing removes large breeding females.

## What is the difference between marlin and swordfish?
Marlin have round bills, rigid dorsal fins and visible pelvic fins. Swordfish have flat bills and belong to a separate family. Marlin are generally more associated with tropical surface waters.

## How can bycatch be reduced?
Circle hooks, night setting, time-area closures, mandatory observers and retention bans reduce marlin mortality on longlines. Pole-and-line tuna fisheries avoid most bycatch.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) are tall Amazonian cichlids kept worldwide in aquariums; the many 'varieties' are line-bred colour and fin forms of one species, needing a tall planted tank of 110+ litres and calm tankmates.

## Introduction
The freshwater angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) is a tall, disc-shaped cichlid from the slow waters of the Amazon basin, and one of the most popular aquarium fish in the world. Its flattened body and trailing fins let it slip between submerged plant stems, where it hunts small prey and guards its eggs. Generations of aquarium breeding have produced colour and finnage varieties — silver, zebra, marble, koi, gold, platinum, veil and albino — that are all the same species, not separate fish. Despite an angelic look, these are territorial cichlids with real needs: a tall, warm, well-filtered, planted tank and calm tankmates. WARN publishes this guide as free, honest fishkeeping education.

## Takeaway
Almost all aquarium angelfish are line-bred varieties of one species, Pterophyllum scalare.

## Takeaway
They are cichlids, not relatives of marine angelfish, and can be territorial.

## Takeaway
Their tall body needs a tall tank — height matters as much as length.

## Takeaway
Fancy fin types (veil) are delicate and need gentle, non-fin-nipping tankmates.

## Takeaway
Angelfish are devoted parents, fanning and guarding their eggs and fry.

## Takeaway
Stable, warm, well-filtered water prevents most common diseases.

## Wild angelfish of the Amazon
Pterophyllum scalare lives in the slow, warm, often tannin-stained waters of the Amazon basin, among submerged roots and tall plants. Its laterally flattened body and long fins are camouflage and manoeuvring gear for life among vertical stems, where the dark vertical bars break up its outline. Wild angelfish hunt small invertebrates and fish fry and form pairs that jointly defend a territory and their eggs.

The wild 'silver' form is the basis of every aquarium variety. Two close relatives — the larger Pterophyllum altum and the smaller P. leopoldi — are also kept by specialists but are far less common than the line-bred scalare varieties.

## Varieties are line-bred, not separate species
The silver, zebra, marble, koi, gold, platinum, veil and albino angelfish sold in shops are colour and fin mutations selectively bred from one species. Colour genes stack — a fish can be koi and veil at once — so the trade names describe appearance, not ancestry. None of these are separate species, and all share identical care needs.

Because the varieties interbreed freely, 'designer' angelfish appear constantly. Buyers should choose healthy, well-shaped fish from a responsible source rather than chasing rare patterns from poor stock.

## Tank, water and tankmates
Angelfish grow tall, so a single pair needs a tall aquarium of at least 110 litres, planted and gently filtered, with stable warm water around 25–28°C. They are cichlids and can be territorial, especially when breeding, and may eat very small fish such as neon tetras. Good tankmates are calm, similarly sized and will not nip the long fins of veil varieties.

Sharp décor should be avoided to protect trailing fins. Overstocking, poor filtration and unstable water cause most health problems, so steady maintenance matters more than gadgets.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## Health and responsible fishkeeping
Common angelfish problems — ich (white spot), fin rot, swim bladder issues, hexamita and ammonia poisoning — are nearly all linked to water quality, diet and stress. Cycling the tank before stocking, regular partial water changes, quarantining new fish and avoiding overfeeding prevent the majority of disease.

Responsible fishkeeping also means buying captive-bred stock, never releasing aquarium fish into the wild (released pets and plants cause ecological harm), and planning for an adult fish that can live 8–10 years, not the tiny juvenile in the shop bag.

## Explore angelfish varieties on WARN
WARN's angelfish variety library at /wildlife-guides/angelfish covers line-bred colour and fin forms — including the wild-type Silver, the Marble, the Koi and the Platinum, with further forms added as suitable human-free photos are sourced — each with how the colour or fin type arises, adult size, tank needs and common health issues.

The library helps aquarists understand that these fish are all one Amazon cichlid, and choose and care for them responsibly.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free companion-animal and aquarium welfare education. Understanding that fish are sentient animals with real environmental needs — not disposable decorations — is the first step to responsible fishkeeping and to refusing the wild collection and release that harm freshwater ecosystems.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/angelfish): Angelfish — wildlife guide.

## Are angelfish varieties different species?
No. Almost all aquarium angelfish are line-bred colour and fin varieties of a single Amazonian cichlid, Pterophyllum scalare. The colours and fin shapes are selectively bred traits, not separate species, and all share the same care needs.

## What size tank do angelfish need?
Because angelfish grow tall and are territorial cichlids, a single pair needs a tall aquarium of at least 110 litres, and groups need more. Avoid sharp décor and tankmates that nip long fins.

## Are angelfish aggressive?
Angelfish are cichlids and can be territorial, especially when breeding, and may eat very small fish. They do best with calm, similarly sized, non-fin-nipping tankmates in a planted tank.

## How long do angelfish live?
With stable, warm, well-filtered water and a good diet, angelfish commonly live 8 to 10 years. Most early deaths come from poor water quality, overfeeding or stress rather than old age.

## What do angelfish eat?
They are omnivores that take quality flake or pellet food plus frozen or live foods such as bloodworm and brine shrimp. Variety and not overfeeding keep them healthy and well-coloured.

## Where can I read about angelfish varieties?
WARN's angelfish guide links to a variety library covering line-bred colour and fin forms such as the silver, marble, koi and platinum, with more added as images are sourced — each with care and health notes.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/cockatiel): Cockatiel — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) is a small Australian parrot — the smallest cockatoo, Least Concern in the wild — kept worldwide as a gentle pet; its colour 'varieties' are captive-bred mutations of one species.

## Introduction
The cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) is a small, crested parrot from the Australian outback and the smallest member of the cockatoo family. Wild cockatiels are grey with white wing flashes, orange cheek patches and an expressive crest, and roam the interior in nomadic flocks. As pets they are second in popularity only to the budgerigar, prized for their gentle nature and whistled tunes. Captive breeding has produced colour mutations — lutino, pied, pearl, cinnamon, whiteface and more — that are all the same species. Wild cockatiels are Least Concern, but every pet bird needs company, space and a varied diet. WARN publishes this guide as free, honest bird-care education.

## Takeaway
Cockatiels are the smallest members of the cockatoo family, native to Australia.

## Takeaway
Wild birds are grey; lutino, pied, pearl and whiteface are captive-bred mutations.

## Takeaway
They are gentle, social parrots that need daily interaction and out-of-cage time.

## Takeaway
Males tend to whistle and mimic more; females are usually quieter.

## Takeaway
An all-seed diet causes disease — they need pellets and vegetables too.

## Takeaway
With good care they commonly live 15–25 years.

## Wild cockatiels of the outback
Nymphicus hollandicus ranges across inland Australia, favouring open country near water. Flocks are nomadic, following rain and seeding grasses, and can gather in large numbers at waterholes. Their grey camouflage, white wing flash and jaunty crest are unmistakable, and the crest itself signals mood — raised when alert or excited, flattened when frightened or content.

Wild cockatiels are seed-eaters that nest in tree hollows. The species is Least Concern with a vast range, though like all hollow-nesters it depends on old trees that are slow to replace.

## From wild parrot to gentle companion
Cockatiels entered aviculture in the 19th century and became one of the world's favourite pet birds. Selective breeding produced colour mutations unknown in the wild — the yellow lutino, patchy pied, lacy pearl, warm cinnamon and orange-free whiteface — that can be combined in countless ways. They remain one species with one set of needs.

Cockatiels are gentle and sociable, often bonding closely with their keepers, and many males learn whistled tunes. They are not 'easy' throwaway pets, however: they need company, space and decades of care.

## Care, diet and welfare
A cockatiel needs a cage wide enough for flight, daily time out of the cage, and either a bird companion or plenty of human interaction, because isolation causes stress and feather-plucking. Diet is a major welfare issue: an all-seed diet causes obesity, fatty liver disease and vitamin A deficiency, so a formulated pellet base with vegetables is recommended.

Hens are prone to chronic egg-laying and egg binding if over-stimulated to breed, and all cockatiels are prone to night frights — thrashing in the dark — so a dim night light and a calm sleeping spot help.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/cockatiel): Cockatiel — wildlife guide.

## Cockatiels in the parrot family
As cockatoos, cockatiels share the order Psittaciformes with budgerigars, macaws and the large crested cockatoos — see WARN's parrot and cockatoo guides for the wider family. The welfare lesson is shared across the order: parrots are intelligent, long-lived, social animals, not ornaments.

Prospective owners should adopt where possible, buy only from responsible breeders, and plan for a bird that may live into its twenties and needs daily attention.

## Explore cockatiel varieties on WARN
WARN's cockatiel variety library at /wildlife-guides/cockatiel covers selectively bred colour mutations — starting with the wild-type Normal Grey and the Pied, with more (lutino, pearl, cinnamon, whiteface and others) added as suitable human-free photos are sourced — each with how the colour arises, how to sex the bird, common health issues and care.

The library helps owners see past colour to the bird's real needs, and choose responsibly.

## WARN work
WARN's parrot welfare work highlights that all parrots — from the trafficked macaw to the pet-shop cockatiel — are intelligent, social, long-lived animals. This cockatiel guide is free education on keeping the world's second most popular pet bird well, not as a disposable cage ornament.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/cockatiel): Cockatiel — wildlife guide.

## Are cockatiel colours different breeds?
No. Every cockatiel is the same species, Nymphicus hollandicus. The colours are selectively bred mutations — like coat colours in other animals — not separate breeds, and they share the same temperament and care needs.

## Are cockatiels good pets for beginners?
Cockatiels are gentle and relatively easy for first-time bird keepers, but they are not low-effort: they need a large cage, daily out-of-cage time, company, a varied diet and 15–25 years of care.

## Do cockatiels talk or whistle?
Cockatiels are better whistlers than talkers. Males in particular learn tunes and some words; females tend to be quieter. Both use their crest and calls to communicate mood.

## How long do cockatiels live?
With a balanced pellet-and-vegetable diet, a large cage, daily interaction and avian-vet care, cockatiels commonly live 15 to 25 years. An all-seed diet shortens life through fatty liver disease and vitamin deficiency.

## Are wild cockatiels endangered?
No. The IUCN lists the wild cockatiel as Least Concern; it is widespread and common across inland Australia. Pet cockatiels are captive-bred, not taken from the wild.

## Where can I read about cockatiel varieties?
WARN's cockatiel guide links to a variety library covering colour mutations such as the normal grey and pied, with more added as images are sourced — each with sexing and care notes.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/leopard-gecko): Leopard Gecko — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) is a hardy, ground-dwelling South Asian lizard — Least Concern in the wild — and a popular beginner pet; its many 'morphs' are captive-bred colour and pattern lines of one species.

## Introduction
The leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) is a small, ground-dwelling lizard from the rocky dry country of South Asia, and one of the most popular pet reptiles in the world. Unusually for a gecko it has movable eyelids and lacks sticky toe pads, so it walks rather than climbs glass. Wild leopard geckos are spotted yellow and Least Concern; decades of captive breeding have produced hundreds of colour and pattern 'morphs' — all the same species. Hardy, long-lived and calm, leopard geckos are often recommended for beginners, but they still need correct heat, a varied insect diet and calcium to avoid metabolic bone disease. WARN publishes this guide as free, honest reptile-care education.

## Takeaway
Leopard geckos have movable eyelids and no sticky toe pads — they walk, not climb.

## Takeaway
Wild leopard geckos are spotted yellow and Least Concern across South Asia.

## Takeaway
Hundreds of morphs are captive-bred colour and pattern lines of one species.

## Takeaway
They store fat in their tails and can drop the tail to escape predators.

## Takeaway
Correct heat and dietary calcium prevent metabolic bone disease.

## Takeaway
The Enigma morph carries a neurological 'Enigma syndrome' welfare risk.

## Wild leopard geckos of South Asia
Eublepharis macularius lives in the rocky, arid and semi-desert country of Afghanistan, Pakistan, north-west India and parts of Iran. It shelters by day and emerges at dusk to hunt insects, using its keen eyes and (unusually for geckos) blinking eyelids. The thick tail stores fat as an energy reserve for lean times, and a threatened gecko can shed (autotomise) its tail to escape, regrowing a shorter, blunter one.

Wild leopard geckos are spotted yellow — camouflage among stones — and are listed Least Concern. The pet trade today is overwhelmingly captive-bred rather than wild-caught.

## Morphs are line-bred, not separate species
Since the 1990s, breeders have produced hundreds of leopard gecko morphs — colour and pattern lines such as High Yellow, Tangerine, the three albino strains, Mack Snow, Blizzard, Hypo and Patternless — by selecting single genes or breeding lines. They are all one species, Eublepharis macularius, and all have identical care needs.

Some morphs carry welfare problems: the Enigma morph is linked to a neurological condition (Enigma syndrome) causing balance and coordination issues, so it is widely avoided by welfare-minded keepers. Responsible buyers research a morph's genetics, not just its looks.

## Housing, heat and diet
Leopard geckos need a secure floor-space vivarium with a warm end (a basking surface around 28–30°C) and a cooler end, several hides including a humid hide to aid shedding, and a non-loose substrate to avoid gut impaction. Current best practice provides low-level UVB plus calcium and vitamin D3, even though these crepuscular geckos can also obtain D3 from the diet.

They eat live insects — crickets, dubia roaches, the occasional waxworm treat — dusted with calcium. Clean water must always be available. Correct temperatures are essential for digestion as well as comfort.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/leopard-gecko): Leopard Gecko — wildlife guide.

## Health and responsible keeping
The commonest leopard gecko problems are largely preventable: metabolic bone disease from too little calcium or incorrect lighting, gut impaction from loose substrate or oversized prey, retained shed (dysecdysis) from low humidity, and tail loss from rough handling. A correct set-up and gentle handling prevent most of them.

Responsible keeping means buying captive-bred animals from breeders who avoid welfare-linked morphs, never releasing reptiles into the wild, and planning for an animal that can live 10–20 years or more. A reptile vet should see any gecko that stops eating, loses weight or shows tremors.

## Explore leopard gecko morphs on WARN
WARN's leopard gecko morph library at /wildlife-guides/leopard-gecko covers selectively bred colour and pattern lines — including the Normal wild type, the Tremper Albino, the Mack Snow and the Blizzard, with further morphs added as suitable human-free photos are sourced — each with how the colour or pattern is inherited, adult size, husbandry and common health issues.

The library helps keepers understand that every morph is the same species with the same needs — and which traits to avoid on welfare grounds.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free reptile-welfare education. Leopard geckos are among the most-kept pet reptiles, and good husbandry — correct heat, calcium and diet — prevents most suffering. Honest guides also steer keepers away from welfare-linked morphs and the release of pet reptiles into the wild.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/leopard-gecko): Leopard Gecko — wildlife guide.

## Are leopard gecko morphs different species?
No. Every leopard gecko is the same species, Eublepharis macularius. Morphs are selectively bred colour and pattern lines produced by single genes or line-breeding, and all share the same care needs.

## Are leopard geckos good for beginners?
Yes, they are among the most beginner-friendly reptiles — small, calm, hardy and long-lived — provided the keeper sets up correct heating, a varied calcium-dusted insect diet and proper hides before buying.

## How long do leopard geckos live?
With correct husbandry, leopard geckos commonly live 10 to 20 years, and some males considerably longer. Poor husbandry, especially low calcium or wrong temperatures, causes metabolic bone disease and shortens life.

## Do leopard geckos need UVB?
They can survive on dietary vitamin D3, but current best practice provides low-level UVB plus calcium and D3 supplementation, alongside a warm basking zone and a cooler end of the vivarium.

## What is the Enigma morph and Enigma syndrome?
The Enigma morph is linked to a neurological condition causing circling, head-tilting and balance problems. Because of this welfare risk, many keepers and welfare advocates avoid breeding it.

## Where can I read about leopard gecko morphs?
WARN's leopard gecko guide links to a morph library covering colour and pattern lines such as the normal, Tremper albino, Mack snow and blizzard, with more added as images are sourced — each with husbandry and health notes.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/ball-python): Ball Python — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The ball python (Python regius) is a small, docile African snake — Least Concern but heavily traded (CITES Appendix II) — and the world's most popular pet snake; its thousands of 'morphs' are captive-bred colour and pattern forms of one species.

## Introduction
The ball python (Python regius), also called the royal python, is a small, stocky, docile snake from the grasslands and forest edges of West and Central Africa, and the most popular pet snake in the world. It earns its name from its habit of curling into a tight ball when stressed. Wild ball pythons are Least Concern but are very heavily traded — wild-collected, ranched and captive-bred — and listed on CITES Appendix II. Selective breeding has produced thousands of colour and pattern 'morphs', all the same species. Calm and long-lived, ball pythons are popular but exacting: they need correct heat, humidity and feeding, and some morphs carry serious welfare problems. WARN publishes this guide as free, honest reptile-care education.

## Takeaway
Ball pythons curl into a ball to protect the head — hence the name.

## Takeaway
They are the world's most popular pet snake and among the smallest African pythons.

## Takeaway
Wild ball pythons are Least Concern but very heavily traded; they are CITES Appendix II.

## Takeaway
Thousands of morphs are captive-bred colour and pattern forms of one species.

## Takeaway
The Spider morph carries a neurological 'wobble', and some 'super' forms are lethal.

## Takeaway
They are long-lived — 20–30 years or more — and need correct heat and humidity.

## Wild ball pythons of West Africa
Python regius lives in the grasslands, savanna and forest edges of West and Central Africa, sheltering in rodent burrows and termite mounds and hunting small mammals largely by ambush. It is the smallest of the African pythons and famously shy — when threatened it hides its head in its coils and rolls into a tight ball rather than striking.

Wild ball pythons are listed Least Concern, but the species is among the most heavily traded reptiles on Earth. Large numbers are wild-collected and 'ranched' (eggs taken, hatched and exported) in West Africa, and the species is on CITES Appendix II to regulate that trade.

## Morphs are line-bred, not separate species
The pet trade has produced thousands of ball python morphs by combining dominant, co-dominant and recessive colour and pattern genes — Pastel, Albino, Piebald, Banana, Clown, Mojave, Pinstripe and countless 'designer' combinations. They are all one species, Python regius, with identical husbandry needs.

Some morphs carry real welfare costs. The Spider morph is linked to a neurological 'wobble', and certain gene combinations and 'super' forms cause lethal defects or deformities. Responsible keepers research genetics and avoid pairings known to harm the animals.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/ball-python): Ball Python — wildlife guide.

## Housing, heat and feeding
A ball python needs a secure, escape-proof enclosure with a warm end (around 31–32°C basking/hot spot) and a cooler end (around 25–26°C), measured with thermostats and thermometers, plus correct humidity (around 55–60%, raised during shedding) and a snug hide at each end. Heat sources must be guarded against thermal burns.

They eat appropriately sized rodents, best offered frozen-thawed rather than live to avoid injury to the snake. Ball pythons are famous for occasionally refusing food for weeks, especially in cooler months; healthy adults tolerate this, but ongoing weight loss needs a vet.

## Welfare, trade and responsible keeping
Because so many ball pythons are wild-collected or ranched in Africa, buyers should choose captive-bred animals from reputable sources to reduce pressure on wild populations. Avoid welfare-linked morphs such as the Spider 'wobble' line and known lethal combinations.

Ball pythons live 20–30 years and sometimes beyond 40, so they are a multi-decade commitment. They must never be released — escaped or released pet snakes can harm ecosystems and are illegal to release in most places. A reptile vet should see any snake with breathing problems, retained shed or prolonged weight loss.

## Explore ball python morphs on WARN
WARN's ball python morph library at /wildlife-guides/ball-python covers selectively bred colour and pattern lines — including the Normal wild type, the Albino, the Piebald and the Mojave, with further morphs added as suitable human-free photos are sourced — each with how the colour or pattern is inherited, adult size, husbandry and common health issues, plus honest welfare cautions about genes such as Spider.

The library helps keepers understand that every morph is the same species with the same needs — and which traits and pairings to avoid.

## WARN work
WARN publishes free reptile-welfare education. The ball python is both the world's most popular pet snake and one of the most heavily traded reptiles, so honest guidance — choose captive-bred animals, avoid welfare-linked morphs, never release pets — matters for both individual animals and wild African populations.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand wildlife and the pressures it faces, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and free public education in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/ball-python): Ball Python — wildlife guide.

## Why is it called a ball python?
When stressed or threatened, the ball python curls into a tight ball with its head protected in the centre of the coils. The same species is also called the royal python.

## Are ball python morphs different species?
No. Every ball python is the same species, Python regius. Morphs are selectively bred colour and pattern lines produced by single or combined genes, and all share the same care needs.

## Are ball pythons good for beginners?
They are docile and popular, but they are exacting about heat and humidity and are a 20–30 year commitment. Beginners who research husbandry thoroughly and buy a captive-bred, established feeder can do well with one.

## What is the Spider morph 'wobble'?
The Spider morph is linked to a neurological condition causing head tremors and balance problems ranging from mild to severe. Because of this welfare risk, many keepers and welfare advocates avoid breeding it.

## Are ball pythons endangered?
Wild ball pythons are listed Least Concern, but the species is very heavily traded and is on CITES Appendix II. Choosing captive-bred animals reduces pressure on wild West African populations.

## Where can I read about ball python morphs?
WARN's ball python guide links to a morph library covering colour and pattern lines such as the normal, albino, piebald and mojave, with more added as images are sourced — each with husbandry, health and welfare notes.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/monkey): Monkey — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Monkeys are tailed simian primates of the Americas, Africa and Asia — roughly 260+ species with forward-facing eyes, grasping hands and complex social groups. They are distinct from tailless apes; status ranges from Least Concern to Critically Endangered, and most species are protected from international trade.

## Introduction
A monkey is a primate in the infraorder Simiiformes — the "simians" — distinguished from prosimians such as lemurs and from tailless apes such as gorillas and chimpanzees. Scientists recognise roughly 260 to 280 monkey species split into New World monkeys of the Americas and Old World monkeys of Africa and Asia. Monkeys range from thumb-sized marmosets to large baboons and mandrills. They share forward-facing eyes, grasping hands and feet, complex social lives and often long childhoods. Conservation status varies sharply: some adaptable species remain common, while specialists such as golden lion tamarins and proboscis monkeys are Endangered. Most monkeys are protected under CITES, and private keeping is restricted in many countries.

## Takeaway
Monkeys have tails; apes (gorillas, chimpanzees, orangutans, gibbons) do not — a quick way to tell them apart.

## Takeaway
New World monkeys live in Central and South America; Old World monkeys live in Africa and Asia.

## Takeaway
Monkeys are highly social, often living in troops with hierarchies, grooming and learned behaviour.

## Takeaway
The golden snub-nosed monkey of China lives in bands of up to 200 — among the largest primate societies.

## Takeaway
Most monkeys are poor pets — they need large groups, specialist diets and decades of expert care.

## Takeaway
Habitat loss, bushmeat hunting and the illegal pet trade are the main threats across regions.

## Takeaway
Great apes are covered in separate WARN guides; this page focuses on monkeys and their species.

## What is a monkey — and how is it different from an ape?
Monkeys belong to the simian primates but are not apes. The easiest field distinction is the tail: almost all monkeys have one, while apes — gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans and gibbons — do not. Monkeys also tend to have narrower chests and, in many species, run along branches rather than swing beneath them like apes. Taxonomically, monkeys split into New World monkeys (flat noses, often prehensile tails, native to the Americas) and Old World monkeys (downward-facing nostrils, non-prehensile tails in most species, native to Africa and Asia). Marmosets and tamarins are small New World specialists; macaques and baboons are widespread Old World groups. Understanding this split helps explain why conservation and welfare issues differ between regions.

## Behaviour, intelligence and society
Monkeys are among the most behaviourally flexible non-human animals. Many species use tools, share food according to social rules, and transmit local traditions — different troops using different techniques to open nuts or extract insects. Group size ranges from pair-bonded marmosets to baboon troops of dozens or, in some squirrel monkeys, more than a hundred individuals. Communication combines calls, facial expressions and gestures. Mothers carry and nurse infants for months or years, and youngsters learn foraging routes and social rank through observation. That complexity is why monkeys suffer so severely in the pet trade: a single animal in a human home cannot replicate the diet, space or social stimulation of a wild troop.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/monkey): Monkey — wildlife guide.

## Threats and conservation
No single IUCN label covers all monkeys. Generalist species such as the rhesus macaque remain Least Concern across a huge range, while specialists — golden lion tamarins, proboscis monkeys, several spider monkeys — are Endangered or Critically Endangered. Deforestation for agriculture, logging and urban sprawl removes the continuous forest many species need. Bushmeat hunting and snares kill monkeys for food and traditional medicine. The illegal pet and entertainment trades still remove infants from mothers, with high mortality in transit. CITES lists most monkey species on Appendix I or II, restricting international commercial trade. Protecting connected habitat, enforcing anti-trafficking law and reducing demand for monkey selfies and pets are the most effective levers.

## Monkeys and people
In some regions monkeys live alongside people — rhesus macaques at Indian temples, vervets on African farms, capuchins at forest edges. That proximity creates conflict when crops are raided or tourists feed troops, leading to bites, disease risk and retaliatory killing. Feeding wild monkeys is discouraged by wildlife authorities because it increases aggression and spreads zoonotic disease.

Ethical tourism keeps distance and supports habitats rather than direct contact. For WARN's audience, the practical message is clear: admire monkeys in the wild or in accredited sanctuaries, support habitat protection in range countries, and never treat a monkey as a substitute for a domestic pet.

## Explore monkey species on WARN
This hub introduces monkeys as a group — but most readers search for a particular species. WARN publishes a twenty-species monkey library on this page covering capuchin, rhesus macaque, golden snub-nosed monkey, proboscis monkey and mandrill, plus the olive baboon, Hanuman langur, Barbary macaque, emperor tamarin, black-and-white colobus, pygmy marmoset, gelada and long-tailed macaque.

Flagship guides also cover golden snub-nosed monkey, golden lion tamarin, proboscis monkey and baboon at species level. Great apes — chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan — have separate WARN pages.

All wild primates are CITES-regulated; supporting habitat protection and anti-trafficking work helps every species from Atlantic Forest tamarins to Chinese montane bands.

## WARN work
WARN funds orangutan, slow loris and broader anti-trafficking work in partner countries where primate habitat and welfare overlap our mission. This monkey guide is free public education — helping searchers understand species, threats and why wild primates belong in the wild.

## Donation hook
If this guide helps you understand why wild monkeys belong in the forest, a gift to WARN supports habitat protection and anti-trafficking work for primates in our partner countries.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/monkey): Monkey — wildlife guide.

## How many monkey species are there?
Scientists recognise roughly 260 to 280 living monkey species, split between New World monkeys of the Americas and Old World monkeys of Africa and Asia. The count shifts as genetic studies refine species boundaries.

## What is the difference between a monkey and a gorilla?
Gorillas are apes — they lack a tail, have broader chests and are much larger. Monkeys are generally smaller, have tails (except some stump-tailed macaques appear short-tailed), and belong to different evolutionary branches of the simian primates.

## Can you have a pet monkey?
In most countries private monkey ownership is restricted or illegal, and welfare experts overwhelmingly advise against it. Monkeys need large social groups, climbing space, specialist diets and decades of care. The pet trade causes severe suffering.

## Are monkeys endangered?
It depends on the species. Some adaptable monkeys remain common, while others — such as the golden snub-nosed monkey, golden lion tamarin, proboscis monkey and several spider monkeys — are Endangered or Critically Endangered due to habitat loss and hunting.

## What do monkeys eat?
Most monkeys are omnivorous, eating fruit, leaves, seeds, insects and small animals. Diets vary: howler monkeys eat mainly leaves, capuchins crack nuts and hunt, marmosets gouge tree gum. Specialisation makes habitat type critical.

## Where do monkeys live?
Monkeys live in tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America, Africa and Asia. Habitats include rainforest, dry forest, savanna woodland, mangroves and — for some macaques — urban parks. The golden snub-nosed monkey is unusual in occupying snowy montane forest in central China.

## Where can I read about individual monkey species?
WARN's monkey wildlife guide links to a twenty-species library — from capuchin, rhesus macaque and mandrill to the olive baboon, Hanuman langur, Barbary macaque, emperor tamarin, pygmy marmoset and gelada — plus flagship pages for golden snub-nosed monkey, golden lion tamarin, proboscis monkey and baboon.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tarantula): Tarantula — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
Tarantulas are large, hairy spiders of the family Theraphosidae, with over 1,180 species found worldwide; while most are not individually evaluated by the IUCN, species such as Poecilotheria tarantulas from India and Sri Lanka are listed as Critically Endangered due to habitat loss and the illegal pet trade.

## Introduction
Tarantulas are the gentle giants of the spider world — massive, hairy, and armed with a fearsome reputation that science has consistently debunked. Belonging to the family Theraphosidae, they encompass more than 1,180 valid species across roughly 182 genera, making them one of the most species-rich spider families on Earth. Found on every continent except Antarctica, they range from the rainforests of Brazil and Colombia to the dry scrublands of Mexico, the cloud forests of India and Sri Lanka, the savannas of Africa, and the arid outback of Australia. Despite their imposing size — the record-holding Goliath birdeater (Theraphosa blondi) can weigh over 175 g and span 28 cm leg-tip to leg-tip — most tarantulas pose little danger to humans. Their venom is typically milder than a bee's sting, yet these remarkable arachnids are losing ground fast to deforestation, climate change, and a largely unregulated global pet trade.

## Takeaway
Tarantulas belong to the family Theraphosidae, which contains over 1,180 species in roughly 182 genera distributed across tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

## Takeaway
Most tarantula venom is no more dangerous to healthy adults than a bee sting; their bark is far worse than their bite.

## Takeaway
New World tarantulas defend themselves by flicking barbed urticating hairs from their abdomen — a trait entirely absent in Old World species, which rely instead on speed and a more potent defensive bite.

## Takeaway
Females of some species can live 25 years or more in the wild, while males rarely survive past 7 years, often dying shortly after mating.

## Takeaway
The Indian and Sri Lankan ornamental tarantulas of genus Poecilotheria — around 15 recognised species — are among the world's most threatened spiders, with some numbering only a few hundred individuals due to deforestation and wild collection.

## Takeaway
Only around 3% of tarantula species carry any CITES protection, leaving many species vulnerable to an inadequately monitored global pet trade that has shipped tens of thousands of wild-caught specimens per decade.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tarantula): Tarantula — wildlife guide.

## What is a tarantula and how is it classified?
Tarantulas are mygalomorph (primitive) spiders belonging to the family Theraphosidae within the order Araneae. Unlike the more familiar araneomorph spiders, mygalomorphs have fangs that strike downward in a parallel motion rather than closing like pincers, and they retain two pairs of book lungs for breathing. As of late 2025, the World Spider Catalog recognises approximately 1,180 to 1,192 valid species placed in around 182 to 186 genera, with new species still being formally described each year; around 650 of those species are found in the Americas alone. Twelve to thirteen extant subfamilies are widely accepted, with a landmark 2019 molecular phylogenetic study using transcriptome data from 99 exemplars across 68 genera helping to clarify deep evolutionary relationships within the family. The name 'tarantula' itself is a misnomer borrowed from the Italian city of Taranto, where a large wolf spider (Lycosa tarantula) was historically — and incorrectly — blamed for causing 'tarantism,' a hysterical dancing condition. True tarantulas were only later assigned the name as European naturalists encountered these imposing spiders in the Americas and elsewhere. Within Theraphosidae, species range enormously in size, colour, temperament, and ecological niche, from tiny, cryptic burrowers in desert soils to large, jewel-coloured arboreal specialists living high in tropical forest canopy.

## Where do tarantulas live and how do they behave?
Tarantulas occupy an extraordinary range of habitats. Terrestrial species — the majority — excavate silk-lined burrows in soil, using trip-lines of silk radiating outward from the entrance to detect approaching prey or threats through vibrations. Arboreal species, including the ornamental tarantulas of genus Poecilotheria and the Avicularia 'pinktoe' tarantulas of South America, construct silken tube retreats in tree hollows and bark crevices. A third group makes use of rock faces, riverbanks, and even man-made structures. Because tarantulas lack ears entirely, vibration is their primary window on the world: thousands of microscopic sensory setae covering their legs and body detect air currents and ground vibrations with remarkable precision. Although they possess eight eyes, most species use vision only for detecting broad motion and changes in light. Tarantulas are ambush hunters, lying in wait for large insects, centipedes, millipedes, and other arthropods; the largest species occasionally take small frogs, lizards, or mice. Prey is seized with the chelicerae, venom is injected to immobilise and begin pre-digesting tissue, and the liquefied meal is then consumed. Females produce egg sacs wrapped in tough silk, containing anywhere from around 50 to several hundred eggs depending on the species, which hatch after a period of several weeks to a few months into spiderlings that initially cluster in the maternal burrow before dispersing.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tarantula): Tarantula — wildlife guide.

## How do tarantulas defend themselves?
Tarantulas have evolved two markedly different defensive strategies depending on whether they originate from the New World or the Old World. New World species from the Americas carry a unique arsenal: urticating hairs — not true hairs but barbed, microscopic setae — packed onto the dorsal abdomen. When threatened, the spider rapidly kicks its hindlegs against its abdomen, launching a cloud of these irritants toward the aggressor. The barbed tips embed in skin, eyes, and mucous membranes, causing intense itching, inflammation, and in some cases severe eye damage (ophthalmia nodosa). Urticating hairs are absent at birth and develop progressively with each moult, becoming more potent with age. Old World tarantulas — from Africa, Asia, and Australia — lack urticating hairs entirely, and compensate with faster movement, more conspicuous warning postures, and, in genera such as Poecilotheria and Cyriopagopus, venom that produces more pronounced systemic effects than their New World counterparts, including muscle cramps and fever, though fatalities in healthy adults remain unrecorded. Both groups perform a threat display (rearing up on hindlegs, exposing the fangs) as a last warning before striking. Silk also plays a quiet defensive role: burrow-dwelling species line their tunnel entrances with silk and urticating hairs, creating a tactile alarm system against parasitic wasps such as Pepsis — the legendary 'tarantula hawks' — which paralyse tarantulas and lay eggs inside them.

## Why are some tarantula species endangered?
The conservation picture across Theraphosidae is deeply uneven. The vast majority of the family's 1,180-plus species have never been formally assessed by the IUCN, leaving their status unknown. Among those that have been evaluated, the picture is alarming. The Poecilotheria genus — around 15 ornamental tree spiders endemic to India and Sri Lanka — contains several species listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, including Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica, which is confined to fragmented forest patches with an estimated total population of fewer than 500 individuals. In Brazil, arboreal species of Pachistopelma and Typhochlaena face Critically Endangered listings tied to the Atlantic Forest, which has been reduced to approximately 7–16% of its original extent. Colombia, one of the world's tarantula diversity hotspots, faces intensifying habitat pressure from agricultural expansion. The illegal pet trade compounds habitat pressures dramatically: U.S. imports of Poecilotheria tarantulas rose from roughly 2,700 individuals between 1995 and 1999 to around 16,500 between 2013 and 2017. Despite this surge, only around 3% of tarantula species carry any CITES protection — Appendix II listings covering all Brachypelma species and the entire Poecilotheria genus (the latter added at the 2019 CITES CoP18 conference) — leaving the majority of species tradeable without any permit or monitoring. Deforestation for agriculture, road construction, urbanisation, pesticide use, and intentional killing driven by unfounded fear further reduce populations of tarantulas whose slow reproductive rates and highly specific habitat requirements make recovery difficult.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tarantula): Tarantula — wildlife guide.

## What ecological role do tarantulas play?
Tarantulas are far more than curiosities; they are keystone invertebrate predators whose removal can cascade through entire ecosystems. As voracious hunters of large insects — including agricultural pests such as grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles — they function as free-of-charge pest controllers in tropical and subtropical ecosystems. By suppressing insect populations, they reduce pressure on plants and help maintain plant community structure. Burrowing tarantulas contribute to soil health in a manner analogous to earthworms: their tunnels aerate compacted soil, improve water infiltration, and facilitate nutrient cycling. Their silk retreats — whether burrow linings or arboreal tube tents — create microhabitats colonised by small invertebrates, fungi, and even certain commensal organisms, quietly expanding local biodiversity. In the opposite direction, tarantulas are prey for a suite of specialist predators: Pepsis wasps, large centipedes, scorpions, coatis, skunks, ground-feeding birds, and parasitoid flies. The spider-hunting pompilid wasps in particular have co-evolved elaborate behaviours specifically to overcome tarantula defences, representing a remarkable evolutionary arms race. The loss of large tarantula populations therefore simultaneously removes a predation pressure on prey species and a food resource for specialist predators, creating ripples that ultimately affect vegetation, soil structure, and the broader web of forest life. Their role is especially significant in tropical rainforests — among the most biodiverse and most threatened ecosystems on the planet.

## WARN work
WARN does not currently operate tarantula-specific rescue or field projects; this guide is offered as free educational content to help the public understand and appreciate these misunderstood arachnids. That said, the rainforest habitats of Brazil and Colombia — both WARN partner countries — shelter extraordinary tarantula diversity, and protecting those forests benefits countless species, tarantulas included. Every action that defends tropical forest habitat helps secure a future for the hundreds of spider species that depend on it.

## Donation hook
The forests that shelter the rarest tarantulas — from the Atlantic Forest fragments of Brazil to the cloud forests of Colombia — are the same forests WARN's partners are working to protect. Supporting habitat conservation supports every species that depends on it.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/tarantula): Tarantula — wildlife guide.

## Are tarantulas dangerous to humans?
For the vast majority of people, a tarantula bite is no more medically significant than a bee sting — causing localised pain, redness, and swelling. Most New World species rarely bite at all, preferring to flick urticating hairs as a first defence. Old World species such as Poecilotheria can deliver bites with more pronounced effects, including muscle cramps and fever, but fatalities in healthy adults have not been documented. Anyone with insect venom allergies should exercise caution, and a medical professional should be consulted if a bite causes systemic symptoms.

## How long do tarantulas live?
Female tarantulas are among the longest-lived of all arachnids. In the wild, females of many species live 10–25 years, and captive individuals of the Texas brown tarantula (Aphonopelma hentzi) have reportedly survived for up to 40 years. Males have far shorter lives — typically 3 to 7 years — and frequently die within months of reaching sexual maturity, often shortly after their first mating attempt.

## How many species of tarantula are there?
As of late 2025, approximately 1,180 to 1,192 valid species are recognised in around 182 to 186 genera, with new species described every year. Around 650 species are found in the Americas, with the remaining species distributed across Africa, Asia, Australia, and the southern fringes of Europe. Scientists believe the true number of species is considerably higher, as many remote or poorly sampled regions remain to be surveyed.

## Do tarantulas use webs to catch prey?
Tarantulas do not spin prey-catching webs. They are ambush predators, relying on stealth, camouflage, and vibration-sensing setae to detect and pounce on prey. They do, however, produce silk extensively for other purposes: lining burrows, building tube retreats in trees, constructing egg sacs, and laying trip-lines near burrow entrances that transmit vibrations from passing prey or predators. The silk of some species is strong enough to be detected by researchers studying their movements.

## Why are Poecilotheria tarantulas so threatened?
The roughly 15 species of Poecilotheria are confined to highly fragmented forest patches in India and Sri Lanka. Rapid deforestation for agriculture, timber, and development has reduced and isolated their populations to the point where some species number fewer than 500 individuals. Illegal collection for the global pet trade has compounded the decline dramatically — U.S. imports of Poecilotheria tarantulas more than quadrupled between the late 1990s and the 2010s. Several species are listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and five Sri Lankan species received U.S. Endangered Species Act protections in 2018. In 2019, all Poecilotheria species were added to CITES Appendix II, requiring permits for international trade.

## Can tarantulas be kept as pets legally?
Laws vary considerably by country and species. Many species are freely traded and bred in captivity with no legal restriction. However, species listed on CITES Appendix II — including all Brachypelma and all Poecilotheria — require documentation proving captive origin; trade in wild-caught individuals is restricted. Prospective keepers should research local regulations carefully and purchase only from reputable captive breeders. The CITES trade shift for Brachypelma is a conservation success story: after Appendix II listing, over 99% of traded specimens shifted to captive-bred stock, demonstrating that regulation can work.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bearded-dragon): Bearded Dragon — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a Least Concern lizard native to the arid scrublands of eastern and central Australia, renowned for its darkening throat pouch and unique ability to have sex determined by either chromosomes or incubation temperature.

## Introduction
The central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a medium-sized agamid lizard endemic to the arid and semi-arid interior of eastern Australia. Instantly recognisable by the ring of keeled, spike-like scales surrounding its broad, triangular head — the "beard" that darkens when the animal is threatened or excited — it is one of the most thoroughly studied reptiles on Earth. Adults reach up to 60 cm from snout to tail tip and weigh around 350–550 g, with males generally larger than females. Semi-arboreal by nature, bearded dragons are equally at home basking on fallen branches, fence posts, or rocky outcrops as they are foraging on the ground below. Their omnivorous diet, calm temperament, and vivid body-language repertoire have made them the world's most popular pet lizard, yet wild populations across Australia remain stable and widespread.

## Takeaway
The bearded dragon is a Least Concern species with stable wild populations across eastern and central Australia.

## Takeaway
Its signature 'beard' — a pouch of spiky scales — turns jet-black during threat or courtship displays.

## Takeaway
Uniquely among vertebrates, sex can be determined by ZZ/ZW chromosomes or by high incubation temperatures overriding genetics.

## Takeaway
Adults shift from a mainly insect diet as juveniles to roughly 80% plant matter as they age.

## Takeaway
Brumation — a reptile equivalent of hibernation — occurs in the wild during Australia's winter months (May–August).

## Takeaway
Australia banned the commercial export of all native wildlife under national law in 1982; virtually all pet trade individuals are captive-bred descendants of founder stock smuggled out between 1974 and 1990.

## What is a bearded dragon?
The central bearded dragon belongs to the genus Pogona, a group of eight agamid lizard species native exclusively to Australia. Pogona vitticeps — the inland or central bearded dragon — is the most widespread and best-known member. Its common name derives from the gular pouch of enlarged, pointed scales that encircles the lower jaw and throat. When threatened, courting, or asserting dominance, the dragon puffs this pouch outward and flushes it dark brown to black, creating a striking 'beard' display visible from a distance.

Adults typically measure 45–60 cm in total length, with the tail accounting for roughly half that figure. The body is dorsoventrally flattened — wide and low-slung — which maximises surface area for solar basking. Skin colouration ranges from pale sandy tan through rich ochre, russet, and grey, matching the red earth and sandstone of the Australian interior. Rows of smaller keeled scales run along the flanks, providing a subtle armoured texture. Both sexes possess a beard, though males display it far more frequently. Males can also be distinguished by broader heads, larger femoral pores, and hemipenal bulges at the tail base.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bearded-dragon): Bearded Dragon — wildlife guide.

## Where do bearded dragons live?
Pogona vitticeps occupies the eastern and central interior of Australia: the eastern reaches of the Northern Territory and South Australia, western Queensland, western New South Wales, and the far northwest of Victoria. This range encompasses some of the continent's harshest terrain — hot, dry deserts, semi-arid scrubland, open woodlands dominated by mulga and spinifex, and hummock grassland.

Bearded dragons are behavioural thermoregulators, spending much of the day shuttling between sun and shade to keep their body temperature near the preferred 33–36 °C. They are semi-arboreal: elevated perches such as fence posts, fallen branches, and low boulders serve as both basking stations and lookout points for prey and predators alike. On the hottest summer days, individuals may retreat into shade or burrows during the midday peak and resume activity in the cooler afternoon. In winter (May–August in the Southern Hemisphere), wild dragons enter brumation — a period of deep torpor in underground burrows — emerging once temperatures and day length increase in spring. This seasonal dormancy is biologically hard-wired, driven by reduced photoperiod, cooler temperatures, and declining insect availability.

## What do bearded dragons eat?
Bearded dragons are opportunistic omnivores whose diet shifts substantially with age. Juveniles are primarily insectivorous, with invertebrates making up around 80% of food intake: crickets, beetles, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and smaller arthropods are seized with a quick lunge and crushed by powerful jaws. This protein-rich diet fuels the rapid growth required in a lizard's first year of life.

As bearded dragons mature, the dietary balance inverts. Adults typically consume roughly 80% plant matter — leaves, flowers, native grasses, fruits, and soft vegetation — with only 20% coming from animal prey. Occasionally, large adults will take small lizards or even newborn mice, providing a concentrated calcium source. Reproducing females are thought to increase prey intake during the egg-production period.

In the wild, bearded dragons also obtain significant moisture from food during the dry season, supplementing any rainfall puddles or dew they can access. Their hindgut is well adapted to extract water from fibrous vegetation. The shift toward herbivory as adults appears linked to metabolic changes: the digestive system of a mature dragon processes plant cellulose more efficiently and the energy cost of hunting large prey begins to outweigh the return.

## How do bearded dragons communicate?
Bearded dragons do not vocalise beyond a rare defensive hiss, so virtually all social information is conveyed through body language — a rich repertoire that makes them unusually expressive among lizards.

Head bobbing is the most conspicuous signal. A fast, vigorous bob from a male signals dominance or territorial challenge; a slower, deliberate bob in either sex can signal courtship interest. When two males meet, competing bobs may escalate until one backs down. The subordinate individual then performs an arm wave — a slow, circular lift and lower of one forelimb — that clearly signals non-aggression and acknowledgement of the other's higher rank. Juveniles and smaller females frequently arm-wave toward larger males to avoid conflict.

The beard itself is a multi-purpose flag. Darkening and flaring the throat communicates threat to rivals and predators, sexual readiness to potential mates, and even temperature state — a cooler dragon may darken its belly and beard to absorb more solar radiation. Colour change is not limited to the beard: the whole body can shift between lighter and darker tones across the daily cycle, becoming darkest in the cool morning to maximise heat absorption and lightening as body temperature rises.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bearded-dragon): Bearded Dragon — wildlife guide.

## What makes the bearded dragon scientifically extraordinary?
Among the many discoveries emerging from bearded dragon research, one stands out as genuinely remarkable: this lizard possesses two entirely separate mechanisms for determining the sex of offspring.

Like birds, Pogona vitticeps has a ZZ/ZW chromosomal sex determination system: ZW individuals develop as females and ZZ individuals as males. But when egg incubation temperatures exceed approximately 32 °C, the chromosomal instructions are overridden entirely — ZZ embryos that would normally become males instead develop as fully functional, fertile females. These 'sex-reversed' females are often more fecund than chromosomal ZW females and may play a growing role in wild populations as Australia's inland temperatures trend upward under climate change.

Two independent research teams published findings in GigaScience in August 2025 each identifying the same candidate gene network — centred on the anti-Müllerian hormone gene Amh and its receptor Amhr2 — as the likely master switch mediating this temperature-induced feminisation. The bearded dragon genome has also been sequenced to near-complete 'telomere-to-telomere' resolution, making it one of the most genomically well-characterised reptiles. This research has broad implications for understanding how vertebrate sex determination systems evolve and how warming climates may alter the sex ratios of ectothermic wildlife globally.

## WARN work
WARN does not currently operate rescue or conservation projects for the bearded dragon — its range is limited to Australia, which is outside the countries where WARN's partners work. This guide is offered as free educational content. Understanding how stable, widespread species like the bearded dragon respond to climate change and habitat pressure helps build the broader scientific literacy that benefits wildlife conservation everywhere, including in the regions where WARN works.

## Donation hook
Wild bearded dragons face growing pressure from habitat clearance and rising temperatures that are already altering the sex ratios of reptile populations across Australia. Supporting WARN helps fund the education and habitat-protection work that safeguards ecosystems — because the science learned from stable species like the bearded dragon informs the conservation of far more vulnerable wildlife around the world.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bearded-dragon): Bearded Dragon — wildlife guide.

## Are bearded dragons endangered?
No. The central bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List (assessed 2018), meaning its population is stable and widespread across eastern and central Australia. While habitat loss, introduced predators such as feral cats and foxes, and climate change pose ongoing challenges, none currently threatens the species at a population level.

## Can bearded dragons change sex?
Not after birth, but sex can be determined in two different ways during embryonic development. Pogona vitticeps normally uses ZZ (male) and ZW (female) sex chromosomes, but when incubation temperatures exceed roughly 32 °C, the chromosomal signal is overridden and ZZ embryos develop into fertile females. Two independent research teams publishing in GigaScience in August 2025 identified the anti-Müllerian hormone gene (Amh) and its receptor (Amhr2) as the likely master genetic switch responsible for this temperature-induced sex reversal.

## How long do bearded dragons live?
Wild bearded dragons typically live five to eight years, facing predation, drought, and seasonal temperature extremes. In captivity, with appropriate UVB lighting, diet, and veterinary care, the same species routinely reaches 10–14 years.

## What does the 'beard' actually do?
The gular pouch of enlarged spiky scales serves multiple purposes. When flared and darkened — usually jet-black — it signals threat to a predator or rival, or courtship readiness to a mate. Both sexes have a beard, but males display it far more frequently. The darkened skin also absorbs solar radiation more efficiently, so the beard has a secondary thermoregulatory role on cool mornings.

## Why are pet bearded dragons not imported from Australia?
Australia prohibited the commercial export of all native wildlife under the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982, later reinforced by the EPBC Act 1999. The millions of bearded dragons in the global pet trade today are descended from a relatively small founder population that was smuggled out of Australia, primarily between 1974 and 1990, before captive breeding colonies became established in Europe and North America. All legally traded animals today are captive-bred.

## What do bearded dragons eat in the wild?
They are omnivores with an age-dependent diet. Juveniles eat mainly insects — crickets, beetles, caterpillars, and other invertebrates — which make up around 80% of intake. Adults flip this ratio, with roughly 80% of the diet coming from plant matter: leaves, flowers, native grasses, and fruits. Large adults occasionally consume small lizards or rodents for additional calcium.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/moose): Moose — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The moose (Alces alces) is the world's largest deer, standing up to 2.1 m (7 ft) at the shoulder and weighing up to 771 kg (1,700 lb), found across the boreal forests of North America, Northern Europe, and Russia.

## Introduction
The moose (Alces alces) is the world's largest and heaviest living deer, a creature so singular it occupies its own genus. A full-grown Alaskan bull can tip the scales at 771 kg (1,700 lb) and stand over 2.1 metres (7 ft) at the shoulder, yet move through dense boreal forest with surprising silence. Moose are circumpolar animals, roaming the taiga and mixed forests of North America — from Alaska and Canada south into the northern contiguous United States — and across Northern Europe through Russia and Siberia. With their overhanging muzzle, towering shoulder hump, and the unmistakable, wide-palmed antlers of the adult male, moose are one of the most recognisable megafauna of the Northern Hemisphere. Despite a globally stable population, localised pressures from climate change, parasites, and habitat fragmentation are pushing some regional herds into genuine decline.

## Takeaway
Moose are the largest living members of the deer family Cervidae, with Alaskan bulls reaching 771 kg.

## Takeaway
They are uniquely adapted to cold northern climates and will overheat in temperatures above about 27°C (80°F).

## Takeaway
Adult moose can dive up to 6 metres (20 ft) below the water surface to reach sodium-rich aquatic plants.

## Takeaway
Climate change is shortening winters and enabling explosive winter tick infestations that kill up to 70% of moose calves in some New England populations.

## Takeaway
A parasitic brain worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), lethal to moose but harmless in white-tailed deer, is expanding northward as deer ranges shift with warming temperatures.

## Takeaway
Despite being classified as Least Concern globally, some regional populations such as Minnesota's have declined by over 50% since 2009, stabilising at around 3,500 animals in recent years.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/moose): Moose — wildlife guide.

## What is a moose and how does it differ from other deer?
The moose stands in a category of its own within the family Cervidae. It is the sole living species of the genus Alces, and no other deer approaches its size. Where most deer sport pointed, branching antlers, bull moose grow broad, palmate antlers — shaped like an open hand — that can span 1.8 metres (6 ft) tip to tip and weigh over 20 kg (44 lb). These are shed and regrown every year, reaching their greatest mass when a bull is around 10–12 years old. Moose also have an unusually elongated, bulbous nose, a pronounced shoulder hump packed with muscle, and long, stilted legs perfectly designed for wading through deep snow or swampy terrain. Their dark brown coat contains hollow guard hairs that trap air and provide exceptional insulation. Both sexes display a pendant of skin called the 'bell' or dewlap hanging from the throat, the function of which is still debated but may play a role in communication during the rut. Cows, which lack antlers, weigh between 270 and 400 kg and are typically about 40% lighter than bulls. Taxonomists currently recognise up to eight subspecies, including the enormous Alaskan moose (A. a. gigas), the eastern moose (A. a. americana), the northwestern moose (A. a. andersoni), the smaller Shiras moose (A. a. shirasi) of the Rocky Mountains, and the European elk (A. a. alces) of Scandinavia and Russia.

## Where do moose live and what habitat do they need?
Moose are fundamentally creatures of the cold north. Their circumpolar range covers the boreal forest (taiga) belt of North America — from Alaska and the Yukon east through Canada and south into Minnesota, Maine, New Hampshire, and the Rocky Mountain states — as well as Scandinavia, Poland, the Baltic states, and vast tracts of Russia and Siberia. They are adapted to climates where winter temperatures plunge well below freezing; in fact, moose begin to experience heat stress at temperatures above roughly 14–19°C (57–66°F) in winter and 24–27°C (75–80°F) in summer. This thermal sensitivity makes them highly sensitive to climate warming. Within their range, moose favour the interface of forest and wetland. They are closely tied to lakes, rivers, bogs, and marshes — not only for drinking water but for their aquatic food sources and thermoregulation. Dense riparian willow, birch, and aspen stands provide critical browse in summer and winter alike. Moose do not form herds; they are predominantly solitary, with home ranges that vary from roughly 25 km² in productive habitat to over 500 km² in sparse environments. Seasonal movements can be considerable: some Alaskan populations migrate vertically between mountain summer range and valley winter range, a journey of 30–80 km.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/moose): Moose — wildlife guide.

## What do moose eat and how do they feed?
Moose are strict herbivores and voracious ones — an adult can consume approximately 27 kg (60 lb) of vegetation per day during summer, building critical fat reserves for the winter lean season. Their diet shifts dramatically with the seasons. In spring and summer, moose rely heavily on aquatic and semi-aquatic plants: water lilies, pondweed, horsetails, and the submerged roots and stems of emergent vegetation. These plants are rich in sodium — a mineral scarce in terrestrial plants — making water bodies essential feeding grounds. Moose are powerful swimmers, capable of diving to depths of around 5–6 metres (16–20 ft) and holding their breath for up to 50 seconds to graze underwater. Their large, prehensile upper lip and muscular nose allow them to strip leaves with efficiency. As temperatures fall, the diet shifts to terrestrial browse: willow, birch, aspen, and maple twigs, plus the bark and needles of conifers such as pine and fir. In winter, a moose may survive almost entirely on woody material, relying on a specialised gut microbiome to extract nutrition from cellulose-heavy food. Mineral licks are also visited year-round, particularly by pregnant cows seeking supplemental sodium, calcium, and magnesium in the weeks before calving.

## How do moose reproduce and raise their young?
The moose rut unfolds dramatically across September and October. Bull moose, which have spent the summer in peaceful solitude, transform into aggressive competitors, thrashing vegetation, wallowing in mud and urine, and emitting deep, resonant grunts to attract cows and warn rivals. Sparring matches between bulls — antlers locked, muscles straining — can last 30 minutes or more, though outright battles to the death are rare. A dominant bull may mate with several cows during a single season before his antlers are shed in November or December, the testosterone fuelling antler retention dropping sharply after the rut. Gestation lasts approximately 230–240 days (mean around 231 days), and most calves arrive in mid- to late May. First-time cows typically bear a single calf; experienced cows aged 3–9 commonly produce twins. Newborns weigh 13–16 kg (28–35 lb) but gain weight at a remarkable rate — up to 1 kg per day in the first month — fuelled by cow's milk that is richer in fat and protein than that of domestic cattle. Calves are weaned at about five months. The cow is intensely protective and will charge wolves, bears, and even humans to defend her offspring. Young moose remain with their mother through their first winter, being driven off just before the next calf is born. In the wild, moose typically live 15–20 years, though few bulls survive past 15 due to the physiological cost of repeated ruts.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/moose): Moose — wildlife guide.

## What threats do moose face today?
Despite a globally stable status, moose face mounting regional pressures, many tied directly to climate change. Winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) are the most acutely documented threat in North America. Unlike ticks that drop off a host to overwinter in the soil, winter ticks remain attached to moose all season, with a single animal sometimes carrying tens of thousands of individuals. Infested moose rub compulsively, losing much of their insulating coat and earning the name 'ghost moose' for their pale, patchy appearance. Studies in New England have recorded combined calf mortality rates of up to 70% in heavy tick years, compared to around 15% two decades ago. Crucially, shorter autumns driven by warming temperatures give ticks a longer window to seek hosts in the fall, and earlier springs mean ticks drop to the soil while conditions are still favourable for survival — a double blow that is intensifying infestations decade by decade. A separate threat comes from the brain worm Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, a nematode carried harmlessly by white-tailed deer but devastating to moose, causing neurological symptoms and death. As milder winters allow deer to expand northward into moose territory, the parasite follows. Hunting pressure, habitat fragmentation from roads and logging, and liver flukes add further stress. Minnesota's moose population illustrates the cumulative toll: numbers fell from approximately 8,000 in 2009 to a low of around 3,000, though recent surveys (2024–2025) show stabilisation at approximately 3,500 animals — still more than 50% below the 2009 peak.

## WARN work
WARN does not currently run field projects for moose, and this guide is offered as free educational content to support public awareness of the species. WARN's active conservation partnerships focus on wildlife in its partner-network countries. Understanding how climate change reshapes the health and range of large mammals like the moose — even far from WARN's current project areas — helps build the global case for protecting intact wild habitats everywhere.

## Donation hook
Wild habitats across the northern boreal belt face mounting pressure from deforestation, road building, and climate change. Supporting habitat protection keeps large mammals like the moose connected across the landscapes they need to survive — and strengthens the case for conservation everywhere WARN works.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/moose): Moose — wildlife guide.

## Is the moose the same animal as the European elk?
Yes. In Europe and much of Asia, Alces alces is called the elk or Eurasian elk. In North America the same species is universally known as the moose, while 'elk' there refers to a completely different deer, the wapiti (Cervus canadensis). To avoid confusion, scientists and international bodies typically use the scientific name Alces alces.

## How dangerous are moose to humans?
Moose injure more people in North America each year than bears do. Despite their generally non-aggressive nature, they have poor eyesight and can be unpredictable, particularly cows with calves, bulls during the autumn rut, and animals that are ill or nutritionally stressed. A charging moose can reach 55 km/h (35 mph) and delivers powerful kicks with front and rear hooves. Giving moose a wide berth — at least 50 metres — and never approaching a cow with a calf are the key safety rules.

## Why do moose wade into lakes and rivers?
Aquatic plants such as water lilies and pondweed are among the richest dietary sources of sodium for moose, a mineral that is scarce in most terrestrial vegetation. A moose may need 1–2 grams of sodium per day, and a single feeding bout in a lake can supply a significant portion of that requirement. Moose are strong swimmers, reaching speeds of about 9–10 km/h (6 mph), and can submerge completely to graze at depths of up to 5–6 metres.

## How fast can moose grow their antlers?
Moose antlers are among the fastest-growing tissues in the animal kingdom. From spring through late summer, a bull's antlers can grow at a rate of up to 2.5 cm (1 inch) per day, covered in velvet — a soft skin rich in blood vessels that supplies nutrients. Once the antlers reach full size in late August or September, the velvet dries and is rubbed off against trees and shrubs, revealing the hardened bone beneath.

## Are moose adapted to cold climates?
Moose are among the most cold-adapted large mammals in the world. Their hollow guard hairs trap warm air close to the body, and their long legs elevate the body above cold ground and deep snow. However, this same insulation makes them vulnerable to heat: moose begin to show signs of heat stress at surprisingly modest temperatures, around 14°C (57°F) in winter condition and 24°C (75°F) in summer. As a result, rising global temperatures are of genuine concern for the long-term viability of moose at the southern edges of their range.

## What is the global moose population?
The global moose population is estimated at approximately 1.5 million individuals. North American populations total around 1 million, while Eurasian populations — spanning Scandinavia, the Baltic states, Poland, and Russia — account for roughly another 1.2 million. The IUCN assessed the species as Least Concern in its most recent evaluation (2016), noting that many populations are stable or expanding, though regional declines in parts of the United States are a concern.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bison): American Bison — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The American bison is the largest land mammal in North America, listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN with an estimated 15,000 truly wild individuals remaining after a dramatic near-extinction in the 19th century.

## Introduction
The American bison (Bison bison), often called the buffalo, is the largest land mammal in North America and one of the most ecologically significant animals on Earth. Adult bulls can tip the scales at more than 900 kg and stand nearly two metres at the shoulder, their enormous shaggy heads lending them an unmistakable silhouette against the open prairie sky. Once thundering across the continent in herds estimated at 30 to 60 million individuals, bison were hunted to the brink of extinction by the late nineteenth century, leaving fewer than 600 animals alive by 1889. A century of painstaking conservation work has brought the species back to roughly 500,000 individuals today, though only around 15,000 are considered truly wild and free-ranging. The IUCN currently lists the American bison as Near Threatened.

## Takeaway
American bison were reduced from an estimated 30–60 million animals to just 541 by 1889, one of the most dramatic wildlife collapses in recorded history.

## Takeaway
The IUCN lists the species as Near Threatened (assessed 2016, published 2017), with only five populations considered ecologically viable and population trend assessed as stable.

## Takeaway
Bison are a keystone species: their grazing, wallowing, and dung deposition shape soil, water, and plant biodiversity across the Great Plains.

## Takeaway
Cattle hybridization has introduced domestic cattle genes into the majority of plains bison herds, posing a long-term genetic integrity concern.

## Takeaway
Brucellosis, a bacterial disease shared with domestic cattle and elk, remains a flashpoint for bison culling and herd management disputes.

## Takeaway
Wood bison (Bison bison athabascae), the larger northern subspecies, was once listed on CITES Appendix II but was successfully delisted in 2017 following population recovery; neither subspecies is currently listed on any CITES appendix.

## What is an American bison?
The American bison (Bison bison) is the largest terrestrial mammal native to North America, a member of the family Bovidae and one of only two surviving bison species on Earth — the other being the European wisent (Bison bonasus). Two subspecies are recognised: the plains bison (B. b. bison), the more numerous and smaller of the two, and the wood bison (B. b. athabascae), a larger, taller-humped form found in northern Canada and Alaska. Adult plains bison bulls reach lengths of 3.6–3.8 metres and can weigh up to 900 kg; females are noticeably smaller at 400–550 kg. Their most recognisable features are the massive, low-slung, shaggy head, a pronounced shoulder hump supported by elongated vertebral spines, and a coat of dark brown woolly fur that thickens dramatically through winter and is shed in large clumps each spring. Despite their bulk, bison are surprisingly athletic — they can sprint at up to 55 km/h and are strong swimmers. Both sexes carry short, curved black horns that grow throughout life. Calves are born a distinctive reddish-orange colour, earning them the nickname "red dogs," before gradually darkening to adult brown within a few months.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bison): American Bison — wildlife guide.

## Where do American bison live?
Historically, American bison ranged across virtually the entire North American interior — from the boreal forests of Canada's Northwest Territories south to northern Mexico, and from the eastern woodlands to the Rocky Mountain foothills. The species is most strongly associated with the Great Plains, a vast expanse of mixed-grass and shortgrass prairie spanning ten U.S. states and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba. Today, bison occupy a tiny fraction of that original range. Free-roaming herds persist primarily in protected areas including Yellowstone National Park (the only continuously wild herd in the contiguous United States), the Henry Mountains in Utah, and various national parks in Canada such as Wood Buffalo National Park. Bison thrive in open grasslands, semi-arid prairies, and savanna-parkland habitats where they follow seasonal forage. When unimpeded by fencing, they perform migrations of up to 240 km between winter and summer territories in boreal parkland habitats. Their seasonal movement patterns track the flush of new grass growth, a behaviour that once made them a defining feature of the North American interior but which is now constrained almost everywhere by fences, roads, and developed land.

## Why is the American bison Near Threatened?
The IUCN Red List's 2016 assessment (published 2017) places the American bison as Near Threatened, citing three core concerns: dependence on ongoing conservation management (without which the species would likely qualify as Vulnerable or worse within five years), the very small number of ecologically viable wild populations — only five globally — and the fragmented, isolated nature of most surviving herds, thirteen of which contain fewer than 400 individuals. That isolation limits natural gene flow, increases inbreeding risk, and reduces the species' capacity to adapt. A further complication is genetic purity: the vast majority of plains bison carry at least some domestic cattle DNA, a legacy of 19th-century crossbreeding experiments carried out by ranchers who were among the first to save bison from extinction. This introgression is not universally harmful, but it complicates efforts to restore genetically authentic wild herds. Brucellosis — a bacterial disease (Brucella abortus) shared among bison, elk, and domestic cattle — is another persistent threat. Bison testing positive for brucellosis exposure in the Greater Yellowstone Area are often culled when they wander beyond park boundaries, a practice that caps the size and range of the Yellowstone herd. Habitat fragmentation, agricultural encroachment, and historical overhunting have collectively prevented bison from re-establishing across most of their original range.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bison): American Bison — wildlife guide.

## How do bison shape the prairie ecosystem?
American bison are a textbook keystone species — animals whose impact on an ecosystem is disproportionately large relative to their abundance. As bulk grazers, bison consume primarily grasses and sedges, trimming tall vegetation and stimulating fresh regrowth. Their selective grazing creates a mosaic of short and tall grass patches that supports far greater plant diversity than ungrazed prairie, and provides varied habitat for ground-nesting birds, small mammals, and insects. Wallowing — the behaviour in which bison repeatedly roll in loose soil to dislodge parasites and shed winter fur — creates bowl-shaped depressions that fill with rainwater after storms, providing temporary wetland habitat for amphibians and drinking water for dozens of other species. Each wallow is ecologically distinct, and researchers have documented thousands of them across Yellowstone study areas alone. Bison dung enriches the soil with nitrogen and phosphorus, disperses seeds, and supports entire communities of dung beetles and flies that form the base of broader food webs. Before European settlement, the mass seasonal migrations of bison were a continental-scale ecological process, moving nutrients and disturbing soils across millions of hectares. The loss of this process impoverished the Great Plains in ways that ecologists are only beginning to quantify, and the restoration of bison to larger landscapes is now recognised as a powerful tool for grassland recovery.

## What does bison conservation look like today?
The recovery of the American bison from 541 animals in 1889 to roughly 500,000 today is one of wildlife conservation's most celebrated turnarounds. Landmark early work by figures such as William Hornaday, who spearheaded organised recovery efforts beginning in 1905, established the framework for modern bison management. Today, bison are managed across a patchwork of national parks, tribal lands, private ranches, and government reserves in the United States, Canada, and Mexico. However, the total of approximately 500,000 includes around 400,000 animals managed largely as livestock on private commercial operations; genuine conservation herds number closer to 30,000, and truly wild, free-roaming bison account for only around 15,000 individuals. Expanding wild herds requires political will, land, and resolution of livestock-bison conflicts, particularly over brucellosis management. Tribal nations across the Great Plains have become increasingly central to bison restoration, recognising the animal's deep cultural and spiritual significance. Wood bison (B. b. athabascae) were once listed on CITES Appendix II, but were successfully delisted in 2017 following demonstrated population recovery; reintroduction programmes have since re-established small populations in Canada and Alaska. The species' fate rests on continued management, habitat connectivity, and the political resolve to allow bison to reclaim a meaningful portion of their original range.

## WARN work
WARN does not currently run projects for the American bison, and this guide is offered as free educational content. WARN's active conservation partnerships focus on wildlife in its partner-network countries. Understanding the near-extinction and slow recovery of iconic species like the bison helps build the global awareness that supports habitat protection everywhere — including the threatened grasslands and forests where WARN's partners work.

## Donation hook
The comeback of the American bison shows what determined conservation can achieve — but thousands of species across the globe still face the same desperate odds the bison did in 1889. Supporting WARN helps fund the on-the-ground habitat protection work that gives wildlife a fighting chance before populations fall that low.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/bison): American Bison — wildlife guide.

## Is an American bison the same as a buffalo?
The terms are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, but they are not the same animal. True buffalo — the African Cape buffalo and the Asian water buffalo — are only distantly related to bison. European settlers applied the name "buffalo" loosely to the American bison, and the nickname has stuck for centuries. Zoologically, the correct name is American bison (Bison bison).

## How many American bison are left in the wild?
Estimates vary depending on how "wild" is defined. The total managed population is approximately 500,000, but the vast majority are in private commercial herds. Conservation herds number around 30,000, and only roughly 15,000 individuals are considered truly free-ranging and not primarily confined by fencing, according to IUCN data from the 2016 Red List assessment.

## What caused the near-extinction of bison in the 19th century?
The collapse from an estimated 30–60 million animals to just 541 by 1889 was driven primarily by commercial hunting for hides and meat, compounded by deliberate policies aimed at depriving Indigenous Plains peoples of their primary food source. Advances in firearm technology and railroad access to the Great Plains made mass slaughter possible on an almost industrial scale throughout the 1870s and 1880s.

## Are American bison dangerous to humans?
Yes. Despite their seemingly slow, docile demeanour, bison are unpredictable and capable of explosive bursts of speed reaching 55 km/h. They are responsible for more visitor injuries in Yellowstone National Park than any other animal. Bison should never be approached — wildlife agencies recommend maintaining a minimum distance of 23 metres (25 yards) at all times.

## What do American bison eat?
Bison are generalist grazers that feed predominantly on grasses and sedges. They adjust their diet seasonally, favouring tender new shoots in spring and summer and shifting to dried grasses and woody material in winter. In deep snow, they use their massive heads as ploughs to expose frozen vegetation beneath, a behaviour rarely seen in other large grazers.

## What is the difference between plains bison and wood bison?
The plains bison (Bison bison bison) is the more numerous subspecies, found across the Great Plains of the United States and southern Canada. The wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) is larger — males can exceed 900 kg — has a taller, squarer hump, and historically occupied boreal forests and parklands in northern Canada. Wood bison were nearly extinct by the mid-20th century; they were listed on CITES Appendix II from 1997 until 2017, when they were successfully delisted following demonstrated population recovery. Reintroduction programmes have re-established small populations in Canada and Alaska.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/quokka): Quokka — wildlife guide.

## One-line answer
The quokka is a Vulnerable marsupial found only in south-western Western Australia, best known for its photogenic "smile" but facing serious threats from feral predators, habitat loss, and climate change.

## Introduction
The quokka (Setonix brachyurus) is a small, stocky marsupial native to a tiny corner of south-western Western Australia. About the size of a domestic cat — weighing between 1.6 and 4.2 kg and measuring up to 54 cm in body length — it is the sole member of the genus Setonix and one of the more recognisable members of the kangaroo family, Macropodidae. Its rounded face and upturned mouth corners produce what looks uncannily like a smile, earning it the viral title of the world's "happiest animal" and turning Rottnest Island into an international selfie destination. Beneath the internet fame, however, the quokka is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, its mainland population fragmented and declining under pressure from introduced predators, habitat loss, and a drying south-west Australian climate driven by climate change.

## Takeaway
The quokka is the only species in the genus Setonix and is found nowhere else on Earth outside a small region of south-western Western Australia.

## Takeaway
Its global population is estimated at just 7,850 to 17,150 mature individuals, split between island refuges and fragmented mainland patches.

## Takeaway
Introduced predators — particularly red foxes and feral cats — are the primary threat to mainland quokka populations, which lack the predator-free protection that island colonies enjoy.

## Takeaway
The famous "quokka selfie" trend has boosted awareness but also brought tourism pressures, including illegal feeding and handling that can harm individual animals.

## Takeaway
Female quokkas practise embryonic diapause — holding a backup embryo in suspended development so a replacement joey can develop immediately if the current one is lost.

## Takeaway
A drying, warming south-western Australian climate is shrinking the dense vegetation quokkas need for shelter and food, adding long-term pressure on top of immediate predator threats.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/quokka): Quokka — wildlife guide.

## What is a quokka?
The quokka is a small macropod marsupial — meaning it belongs to the same family as kangaroos and wallabies — and is the sole species in the genus Setonix. It was first described scientifically by French naturalists Quoy and Gaimard in 1830, though European sailors encountered it much earlier; when the Dutch mariner Willem de Vlamingh landed on what is now Rottnest Island in 1696, he mistook quokkas for large rats and named the island "'t Eylandt 't Rottenest" (Rats' Nest Island) accordingly — a name that survives today in anglicised form as "Rottnest." The quokka has a stocky, compact build with powerful hind legs, rounded ears, a broad short head, and a relatively short tail of 25–30 cm. Males are slightly larger, reaching 4.2 kg, while females average 1.6–3.5 kg. The fur is coarse and greyish-brown, fading to buff underneath. Quokkas are primarily nocturnal, sleeping during the heat of the day in dense vegetation — often among the spiky fronds of Acanthocarpus preissii, which deter predators — and emerging at dusk to browse on grasses, sedges, leaves, and bark. Although they rarely drink standing water, they extract moisture efficiently from their food, an adaptation to the seasonally dry south-west Australian environment.

## Where do quokkas live?
Quokkas have one of the most restricted natural ranges of any Australian marsupial. Their entire global distribution fits within a small arc of south-western Western Australia, centred on the coastal and forested regions south of Perth. The largest and best-known population lives on Rottnest Island, a predator-free offshore island roughly 18–19 km west of Perth, where an estimated 4,000–8,000 individuals thrive in habitats ranging from semi-arid scrub and wetlands to resort gardens. A second significant island population, numbering 500–2,000 animals, occupies Bald Island near Albany. Mainland populations are more scattered and vulnerable: a small group persists in the Northern Jarrah Forest (around 150 individuals), with further clusters in southern forests (2,000–5,000) and along the south coast (1,200–2,000). On the mainland, quokkas seek out dense riparian thickets and tall heath for cover, particularly near watercourses. They do not occur on any other continent or island group and are entirely absent from the eastern states of Australia. The species' extent of occurrence is calculated at less than 20,000 km², a figure that directly contributes to its IUCN Vulnerable classification under criterion B1.


World Animal Rescue Network (https://worldanimalrescuenetwork.org/wildlife-guides/quokka): Quokka — wildlife guide.

## Why is the quokka Vulnerable?
The IUCN lists the quokka as Vulnerable (VU B1ab[ii,iii]) with a declining population trend. The primary driver on the mainland is predation by introduced species. European settlement brought red foxes and feral cats, neither of which quokkas evolved defences against. Without the island refuge of Rottnest — where cats and foxes are controlled or absent — mainland quokkas are easy prey. Dogs from farms and residential areas add further pressure. Habitat loss compounds the threat: land clearing for agriculture and coastal development has reduced and fragmented the dense, low vegetation that quokkas depend on for shelter. Altered fire regimes — particularly the suppression of the low-intensity, mosaic burning that traditionally maintained open understorey — have degraded habitat quality in some areas. Climate change is now an accelerating concern. South-western Australia is one of the regions most affected by declining winter rainfall; ongoing drying trends reduce the succulent plants and water sources quokkas rely on and increase the frequency and severity of bushfires. In early 2015, a severe fire swept approximately 98,000 hectares of quokka habitat near Northcliffe, decimating a mainland sub-population by an estimated 90%. On Rottnest Island, population density itself creates risk: disease can spread rapidly through a geographically isolated colony, and extreme heat events — which are becoming more frequent — can cause mass mortality events among animals that have limited capacity to thermoregulate in the open.

## How do quokkas reproduce?
Quokka reproduction showcases some of the most remarkable adaptations found anywhere in the marsupial world. After mating — which occurs in a promiscuous system where females may mate with multiple males — gestation lasts only 27 days, one of the shortest among macropods. The single joey born is tiny and undeveloped, crawling unaided into the mother's forward-opening pouch, where it attaches to a teat and continues development for approximately six months. After leaving the pouch, the joey continues to suckle and remains close to its mother for a further two months, achieving full weaning at around eight months of age. Females reach sexual maturity at roughly 18 months. Perhaps most striking is the quokka's use of embryonic diapause: a fertilised egg can be held in a state of suspended development in the uterus while the current joey occupies the pouch. If the pouch joey dies — whether from predation, drought stress, or disease — the dormant embryo immediately resumes development, allowing the female to produce a replacement joey within weeks. This reproductive insurance policy is critical in an environment where juvenile mortality can be high. On Rottnest Island, breeding is seasonal (January to August), likely timed to cooler, wetter months; on the mainland, breeding can occur year-round. Over a lifetime, a female quokka may raise around 17 joeys.